The Ins and Outs of Othello Essay Example For Students

The Ins and Outs of Othello Essay A tragedy without meaning Othello is not, as the very genre of tragedy seeks to imitate action and life, both of which have an inherit meaning. In some ways, Shakespeares work can be considered didactic as in the case in classical tragedy, the heros falls arises as fault of a hamartia on his part, a fault which plagues humanity. In fact, throughout the work, Othello is revealed to have many more faults and weaknesses than a man of his stature should posses, providing a reason for his downfall. The works main protagonist, the scheming Iago, ultimately has his own reasons for his actions; actions, which on surface value, might appear to be inherently evil and motiveless. A third variable here, the role of the setting, and its part in the tragedy also helps to explain the reasons for it. Through Iagos motives, and Othellos inherit weaknesses, the tragedy of the play is meaningful for the audience. We will write a custom essay on The Ins and Outs of Othello specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now By examining Iagos actions and his soliloquies the audience is able to discern that Iago does indeed have motives for his actions, however weak they may be. Despite Iago recognizing that indeed the moor is of a free and open nature Oth Act 1 Sc. 3, he still does despise him. Iago has to be examined closer to discover his motives: of course, he is jealous of Cassios appointment as Othellos lieutenant and this is an ultimate irony in itself as he later mocks Othello for his own jealousy, having succumbed to the green-eyed monster. There is also of course Iagos blatant racial slurs and hatred towards Othello, and his paranoia regarding the supposed infidelity of his wife, And it is thought abroad that twixt my sheets hes done my office Oth Act 1 Sc. 3. However, the latter excuse may seem less reasonable, considering that Iago also utters later that he believes that Cassio has also slept with his wife. Iagos attitude to the subject, contrasting with Othellos view of sex as a unifying for ce, is that it is something inherently dirty and revolting, increasing his paranoia. Iagos main vice however is his lust for power. Ultimately, his aim is not to rise to the rank of lieutenant, but to go as far as he is able to. This point is justified by his plotting not only against Cassio, the man who holds his coveted position, but Othello, the general of the Venetian army himself. Ultimately, Iago is surprised by how easy it becomes to manipulate Othello and by the end of the play is even a little sorry for the ease at which his plan has come to fruition. No man without a clear motive, as has been often suggested for Iago, could have devised such a plan, that struck the victim blow by blow, with no time to recover to rational thought in between. Iagos main motive then becomes a classic case of tall-poppy syndrome as he seeks not only to dethrone the god of war and the goddess of love,  but to also make them suffer. The setting in the play also plays a significant role in the explanation for the reasons for the tragedy. The play opens in Venice, the epitome of western civilization and culture in Shakespeares time Tillyard 113. Under the influence of Venices culture, there does exist imaginary bonds of control and order, which keep characters emotions in check. In Act 2, following the move to Cyprus, these bonds are gradually released, freeing the way for chaos to rule over order in a way not possible in the first Act. The characters have now reached the frontier. Evidence of this is found with reference to the poor weather encircling Cyprus at the time. In this case there is both a literal and metaphorical storm brewing, as Iagos plot begins to shape in his mind. The chidden billow seems to pelt the clouds; The wind-shaked charge, with high and monstrous mane, Seems to cast water on the burning Bear And quench the guards of thever-fixed Pole. Oth Act 2 Sc. 1 .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038 , .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038 .postImageUrl , .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038 , .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038:hover , .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038:visited , .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038:active { border:0!important; } .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038:active , .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038 .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u31a2802565410bb0553edd5a6e969038:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Analysis of The Tempest EssayThe fact that Othello fails to note the power of the brewing storm condemns him to his fate. It must be noted that Othello is a soldier, a general, by profession. In war, rules and conventions apply, but once these bonds of control are taken away, he does not know how to react or behave, considering he has lived his life as if he were fighting a battle. Indeed, these bonds of control are released even further as Othello orders celebration and revelry to mark the destruction of the Turkish fleet. Little does he know that nearby, Iago is using the occasion to plot a destruction of a different kind. The faults that are found in Othellos character are sufficient to demonstrate that, although he may not be deserving of his eventual fate, there is some justification for what has happened. At the start of the play, Othello is portrayed as the god of war, his wife the goddess of love Emert 77. However, during the play it is proved that Othello has too many flaws, and has the basic hamartia of the classic tragic hero. He is not a god, but merely a man, which enables the audience to feel sympathy and pathos towards the lead character. From the very beginning of the play the audience is told that Othello is an outsider. He does not seem to belong to our world, nor do we know how he managed to arrive. He is not even a European, much less an Italian. This racial and cultural difference is explored throughout the play, mainly in the opening Act. Eventually, his lack of knowledge regarding the customs of Venetian women helps to contribute to his downfall. In short, Othello seems to suffer from an acute form of virgin/whore dichotomy, a condition which means in practice that he is only able to see women, in particular his wife, as either absolutely pure and holy, or otherwise foul and wretched  depending upon their fidelity or lack of it. Othello is unable to accept the fact that his wife can make mistakes, and if she does, she can only be considered whore: there proves to be no middle ground. In fact, at the time, although Venice was considered Europes cultural capital, it was seen to have certain drawbacks, especially regarding promiscuity and the diminished role of fidelity in marriage Tillyard 134. Add to this the fact that Iago is dealing with a man who has only recently been engaged in wedlock and therefore is less certain when questioned about his wifes character. Othello has seen the way in which Desdemona has deceived her father and eloped, what is to say that such a consummate actress could not be using the same skills to exploit her own husband? Othellos weakness in his communication skills and his expression of inner feelings is further testament to his lack of perfection. Although he is being modest before the Duke and Brabantio regarding his limitations with his speech, these very qualities are evidenced later in the play. Rude am I in my speech And little blessed with the soft phrase of peace Oth Act 1 Sc. 3 and, And little of this great world can I speak More than pertains to feats of broil and battle; Oth Act 1 Sc. 3 Othello knows how to communicate with men, through obvious and direct means, but lacks the subtle charms to persuade women Emert 80. In Act 1, we discover this as his biggest weakness so far. Michael Cassio is in fact made a model of how Othello should behave in front of, and when referring to women, through his charming of Desdemona and unwillingness to give in to Iago, as he tries to tempt him with Desdemonas virtues in Act 2. Cassio make no illusions of perfection, in contrast to Othello. He admits his vices such as his weakness for drinking, proving he knows his own human qualities. One of the main reasons therefore for Othellos downfall and Cassios realization of power at the end of the play is that whilst Cassios own view of him and that of others are aligned, Othellos are askew. Cassios communicational behavior contrasts strongly with Othellos. .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190 , .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190 .postImageUrl , .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190 , .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190:hover , .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190:visited , .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190:active { border:0!important; } .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190:active , .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190 .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u8dad7345544c5528620266ebe29fc190:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Is Macbeth a man or a monster? EssayWhen Othello ultimately cannot cope with women, he reverts to the only way he knows how: violence: revenge through blood note this contrasts with Iagos wife for wife revenge mentality. This point is proof that eventually Othello is not able to cope with playing more than one role at the same time: in Cyprus he is forced to play both the passionate lover, and governor at various times, whilst his wifes personality proves much more flexible. At various times Desdemona plays the role of the seductress, loving daughter, the sexually aware woman, and the caring wife Emert 82. All along there are signs appearing that Othello can anticipate his fall, and Iago will have his way. Othellos gullibility also proves a reason for his downfall.  He places absolute trust in Iago, believing in his past virtues and his supposed devotion to his wife Emilia. This all-or-nothing approach ultimately transpires to accentuate his jealous rage. He is not prone to introspection, to examining himself from within, but instead is lent to blindly believe the foibles of others, especially Iago. His gullibility enables his self-control, once so evident, to unravel, and be placed in the hands of others. For example, Lodovico cannot believe the changes in his character: Is this the noble Moor whom our full Senate Call all in all sufficient? Is this the nature whom passion could not shake? Whose solid virtue The shot of accident nor dart of chance Could neither graze nor pierce? Oth Act 4 Sc. 1 The fact is that although Othellos passionate emotion helps to fire his imagination; it ultimately leads to blind all reason and rational thinking take 1:3 as Othello recounts the stories of his adventurous past in order to win Brabantios daughter from him. Ultimately the reason behind all the madness is demonstrated in the last scene of the play. What Othello plans to commit is not a murder, but instead a sacrifice. He does this through love for Desdemona, to save her from herself, and for his own honor. This act helps establish a new Othello, an Othello even nobler and braver than the Othello of Act 1, an Othello that arrests his previous decline. O balmy breath, that dost almost persuade Justice to break her sword! One more, one more! Be thus when thou art dead, and I will kill thee and love thee after. One more, and this the last. Oth Act 5 Sc. 2 The audience is left not with a feeling of rage for a senseless, meaningless tragedy, but knowledge that this has taken place for a reason, for a hamartia on the part of the lead character. As Othello dies upon a kiss, briefly we are left with no pain, but with only a feeling of redemption. The reasons for the tragedy are all too plain to see. Iago has his own motives for bringing down Othello and Desdemona, and ultimately he is surprised by how easily he is able to pry apart two people so completely in love with each other. The role of the setting contributes towards the lead characters downfall as the bonds of continuity are broken with the shift to Cyprus Emert 70. Othellos own imperfections are evident from early on in the play, from his gullibility, to his jealousy, to his limited communication skills. It is here where, as in all tragedy, the play contains a certain didactic element as the author seeks to explain the reasons that a great man such as Othello can fall. As Iago ultimately recoils with the ease at which he attains his foul ends, there comes a warning for us all: for if Othello was the greatest the world had to offer, then what hope do we all have?

Marketing Plan Phase II Johnson and Johnson

Marketing Plan Phase II Johnson and Johnson Market identification and a clear understanding of the demographic vagaries of a specific market remains one of the most important aspects of producing products that are tailored to meet the need of a market (Armstrong Kotler, 2011).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Marketing Plan Phase II: Johnson and Johnson specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The target market for the Johnson and Johnson baby lotion will be based on a differentiated market and thus will target more on babies of five years and below. This is because the products from the company are designed to meet the needs of babies who are between this age bracket both male and female. The company’s organizational buyers consist of wholesalers and retailers in the market. The wholesalers in the country import the finished products from Johnson’s baby in containers. These wholesalers specialize in one product and may even engage in advertisin g the products within the country of their operations. They have large warehouses to store the product before selling it. The wholesalers sell to the retailers in smaller units. Some other retailers also act as wholesalers whereby several wholesalers come up together and purchase the Johnson baby lotion directly from the firm at a lower price and later subdivide the products among themselves. The retailer breaks the Johnson baby lotion into single packets or bottles and sells them either to the small retailers in the market or to the final consumers of the product. The factors influencing organization buying include economic conditions whereby the changes in the inflation rate and interest rates will affect the demand of Johnson products. An increase in the interest rate will lead to a reduction in the quantity demanded while a rise in inflation of importing country will also lead to reduced importation (McCarthy Perreault, 1994). Secondly, changes in politics affect the economy of the country leading to changes in the quantity of the Johnson baby lotion product demanded. Thirdly, changes in the social environment also will affect the demand of the product.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More For example, if the society perceives that lotion is not good with young babies, this will automatically lead to a reduced demand for Johnson baby lotion. Fourth, is competition whereby if Johnson company competitors come up with a new product in the market, this will automatically alter the product’s demand. The factors that influence consumers’ buying behavior include cultural factors such as if use of lotion is perceived negatively in a particular community, then the demand for Johnson baby lotion in that community will be low. Secondly, there are social cultural factors such as family, reference groups, roles and status groups in the society. For example, if adult ladies prefer to use lotion rather than solid body oils, this will lead them to purchase Johnson baby lotion for their babies. Thirdly, demand is affected by personal factors such as age, occupation and lifestyle. For example, if where a person works most of the people prefer to buy Johnson’s baby products, a person may also be influenced to be buying the same products. Like any other organization operating in a perfect market, Johnsons and Johnsons is faced with various factors of competition. The competitors of Johnson and Johnson baby lotion include the companies that produce baby lotions such as Aveeno, the Natural Baby, Fulton Street Market among others. These are big companies that pose a threat in the market. For example, Aveeno and Natural Baby pose a big threat as they also produce the baby lotion herbal products which are currently said to be chemical free. If these factors are not perfectly considered, they may lose their market s hare due to the currently rising demand of herbal products in the world. The strengths for Johnson Johnson baby lotion over their competitors in the market include the strong brand image of Johnson Johnson Company products where they are believed to be of high quality and effective in their use. This makes the company market share to even continue to increase as more people purchase the product. The other strength is continued innovation and thus coming up with new and better baby products in the market such as the Johnson natural lotion, bedtime lotion, after bath lotion, cream among others. These developments will help the company to maintain or increase its market share as the new products are to the current needs of babies.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Marketing Plan Phase II: Johnson and Johnson specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Besides the aforementioned strengths, Johnson Johnson is buoyed by th e fact that it is an international company. It has invested a lot in assets such that a new company that wants to get in must invest heavily on assets in order to compete with Johnson Johnson. Since Johnson Johnson focuses only on one market its competitors are targeting several market segments, this may limit their development of new products in the baby segment that Johnson target. This gives Johnson Johnson a competitive edge over its competitors. References Armstrong, G., Kotler, P. (2011). Marketing: An introduction. (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. McCarthy, E., J. Perreault, W., D., (1994). Basic marketing: Selected cases. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

Law Essay (LLB) Media Law Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Law (LLB) Media Law - Essay Example the relationship of celebrities, the media and the role of law, I ask, is the media a crucial and powerful tool in brining neglected court cases to the worlds attention or does the media negatively impinge on the legal realm by influencing legal decisions? To answer this question and more importantly the title of the essay I draw on independently researched media coverage pertaining to the Naomi Campbell case and I discuss this case with reference to the module reading. Africa is known as a hotbed of conflict. Parts of this great continent still reel from impact of wars, atrocities and other consequences of strife that has gripped it in the past century. In fact, some areas still are in the state of recovering from the horrible climate that is common in many states in this corner of the globe. Among the troubled places in Africa is Sierra Leone. This country is known for its exceptionally rich diamond mines (Perriello and Wierda, 2006). It is also notorious for its internal conflict. "Sierra Leone has seen serious and grotesque human rights violations since 1991 when the civil war erupted" (Shah, 2001). The dehumanizing acts seen in this African state are among the most horrific in contemporary history. It has been noted that "25 times as many people have been killed compared to that in Kosovo when the international community decided to act. In fact, it has been pointed out by many that the atrocities in Sierra Leone have been worse than was seen in Kosovo" (Shah, 2001). "In the war, more than two million people were forced to flee their homes, collecting in crowded internally displaced person camps around Freetown or in dangerous refugee camps along the volatile Guinean and Liberian borders" (Perriello and Wierda, 2006). In this conflict "killing were also widespread. It is estimated that perhaps up to 100,000 people were killed during the conflict. Execution was used to install terror and obedience among the civilian population and within the forces

LEGAL AND FINANCIAL ENVIRONMENT FOR BUSINESS STUDY Case

LEGAL AND FINANCIAL ENVIRONMENT FOR BUSINESS - Case Study Example The firm is aiming to expand their business so they are going to face complex structure for the employment contracts and recruiting efficient employees. Employment contracts are the most important legal requirement for employing new people in the operational process. Mainly, legal obligation of the firms are outlining different terms like employment conditions, rights of the parties involved, sharing responsibilities and duties among the parties. It is observed that employment contracts of the UK are having two parties like employer and employees (Aggarwal, 2003). Employer: In the current context, Grace and Taylor is the employer party of the employment contract. Grace and Taylor have to be responsible for compensating new and existing employee. In addition, the UK government is empowering local employment with lawsuits. As per the contracts, Grace and Taylor have to evaluate that predetermined employment standards are maintained in the workplace (Gov.uk, 2015). Major terms of the employment contracts are expressed and implied. Employment contract of the Grace and Taylor will be outlining compensation rate. Payment mode or frequencies for the new recruits are also outlined. The statement must include the leave list and absence payment options. The contract statement will outline the number of working days in a week and month. Working hours are also stated to the employee along with the location of joining (Gov.uk, 2015). Employment contract of Grace and Taylor are outlining the employees duties in terms of setting up potential operational targets. In addition, new recruit have to be informed about the particulars of pension scheme of the firms and other additional payments. The statement should be outlining probationary period applied on new recruits. Such contract papers will disseminate the details of termination, regulation and accusation policies of Grace and Taylor (Cohen & Lou, 2012). The UK legislation is using

Effect of Cosmetic Marketing on Consumers individual self image Dissertation

Effect of Cosmetic Marketing on Consumers individual self image - Dissertation Example A review of the recent literature shows that the cosmetics industry is at the forefront of marketing innovations and this study explores exactly what effects this marketing activity is having on the self-image of consumers. 1.2 Body, Self and Image. It has long been recognised that the way people use certain products helps them to build a concept of self (Grubb, 1967; Sirgy, 1982; Malhotra, 2002). Psychologists have noted that people seek to maintain more than one version themselves. (Adler, 1930) This is very evident in choice of clothing, for example, which people use to align themselves to peer groups, work contexts and so on, and when they adapt to different situations. There are also many products which people use in private and no one else knows that this product is being used. These two situations may connect with what psychologists call â€Å"ideal self† and â€Å"real self† (Dolich, 1969 ) or â€Å"public self† and â€Å"private self.† (Baumeister , 1986) Studies show that what people buy has symbolic as well as literal meanings for them, and by choosing some products over others, consumers are choosing to bolster one or other aspect of their own personality. (Dittmar, 1992) For women especially there are extra pressures to maintain a positive body image because the patriarchal culture that still exists in Western societies values youthful and healthy appearance in women much more than in men. (Woolf, 1991; Gimlin, 2002) As women at the start of the twentieth century increasingly took part in the public world of work, the cosmetic industry played its part in building expectations of increasing artifice in the construction of a public image for women. (Peiss, 1990) Now, at the start of the twenty first century, in a less overtly sexist society, the process appears to be extending still further into the domain of masculinity, and the marketing of cosmetics for men is growing exponentially. (Mintel, 2008) 1.3 The Cosmetics Indus try and Self Image. The cosmetics industry is intimately connected with consumers’ idea of self. to modern approaches like â€Å"Guerrilla Marketing† (Levinson, 2007) which advocates low budget persistence before, during and after a sale. â€Å"Digital Marketing† or â€Å"emarketing† (Parkin, 2009) extols the advantages of new technologies. The concept of â€Å"sticky marketing† rejects old adages like the unique selling proposition or USP because of the proliferation of almost identical products in modern society, and requires instead that â€Å"the focus move from transactions to customer engagement.† (Leboff: . p. 92) All of these have relevance in the fashion-conscious area of cosmetics marketing. It is no coincidence that some of the most psychologically sophisticated campaigns in the history of marketing come from this branch. L’Oreal Group’s long running series of haircare advertisements, for example, which ran the sloga n â€Å"Because you’re worth it† successfully bound their product to the consumer’s feeling of self-worth, creating a memorable message that has become part of the English language. The focus in these advertisements is on the effect which the product has on the consumer’s mind, more than the body, and this is a clever twist that flatters the consumer and seems to sell the product incidentally. This campaign which ran at the start of

Child With Failure To Thrive Health And Social Care Essay

Child With Failure To Thrive Health And Social Care Essay In this review article, the definition, aetiology, evaluation, differential diagnoses, management, prevention and prognosis of failure to thrive are discussed. Failure to thrive (FTT) is a common problem in paediatric practice, affecting 5-10% of under-fives in developed countries with a higher incidence in developing countries. Majority of cases of FTT are due to a combination of nutritional and environmental deprivation secondary to parental poverty and/or ignorance. Many infants with FTT are not identified. The key to diagnosing FTT is finding the time in busy clinical practice to accurately measure and plot a childs weight, height and head circumference, and then assess the trend. In the evaluation of the child who has failed to thrive, three initial steps required to develop an economical treatment-centred approach are: (i) A thorough history including itemized psychosocial review, (ii) Careful physical examination and (iii) Direct observation of the childs behaviour and of parent-child interaction. Laboratory evaluation should be guided by history and physical examination findings only. Once FTT is identified in a particular child, th e management should begin with a careful search for its aetiology. Two principles that hold true irrespective of aetiology are that all children with FTT need a high-calorie diet for catch-up growth (typically 150 percent of their caloric requirement for their expected, not actual weight) and all children with FTT need a careful follow up. Social issues of the family must also be addressed. A multidisplinary approach is recommended when FTT persists despite intervention or when it is severe. Overall, only a third of children with FTT are ultimately judged to be normal. Keywords: Failure to thrive, growth deficiency, undernutrition. INTRODUCTION Although the term failure to thrive (FTT) has been in use in the medical parlance for quite some time now, its precise definition has remained debatable1. consequently, other terms such as undernutrition1 and growth deficiency2 have been proposed as preferable. FTT is a descriptive term applied to young children physical growth is less than that of his or her peers.3 The growth failure may begin either in the neonatal period or after a period of normal physical development.4 The term FTT is not, in itself, a disease but a symptom or sign common to a wide variety of disorders which may have little in common except for their negative effect on growth.5 In this regard, a cause must always be sought. Often, the evaluation of children who fail to thrive pose a difficult diagnostic problem. Some of the difficulties result from the numerous differential diagnoses, the definition used or misdirected tendency to search aggressively for underlying organic diseases while neglecting aetiologies based on environmental deprivation.6 In addition, early accusations and alienation of the childs parents by the health-care provider will make the evaluation and management of the child who has failed to thrive more difficult.7 In general, factors that influence a childs growth include: (i) A childs nutritional status; (ii) A childs health; (iii) Family issues; and (iv) The parent-child interactions.3,8,9 All these factors must be considered in evaluation and management of child who has failed to thrive. This paper presents a simplified but detailed approach to the evaluation and management of the child with FTT. DEFINITION The best definition for FTT is the one that refers to it as inadequate physical growth diagnosed by observation of growth over time using a standard growth chart, such as the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) growth chart.10 All authorities agree that only by comparing height and weight on a growth chart over time can FTT be assessed accurately.11 So far, no consensus has been reached concerning the specific anthropometric criteria to define FTT.11 Consequently, where serial anthropometric records is not available, FTT has been variously defined statistically. For instance, some authors defined FTT as weight below the third percentile for age on the growth chart or more than two standard deviations below the mean for children of the same age and sex1-3 or a weight-for-age (weight-for-hieght) Z-score less than minus two.1 Others cite a downward change in growth that has crossed two major growth percentiles in a short time.3 Still others, for diagnostic purposes, defined FTT as a disproportionate failure to gain weight in comparison to height without an apparent aetiology.6 Brayden et al.,2 suggested that FTT should be considered if a child less than 6 months old has not grown for two consecutive months or a child older than 6 months has not grown for three consecutive months. Recent research has validated that the weight-for-age approach is the simplest and most reasonable marker of FTT.12 Pitfalls of these definitions: One limitation of using the third percentile for defining FTT is that some children whose weight fall below this arbitrary statistical standard of normal are not failing to thrive but represent the three percent of normal population whose weight is less than the third percentile.5,6 In the first 2 years of life, the childs weight changes to follow the genetic predisposition of the parents height and weight.13,14 During this time of transition, children with familial short stature may cross percentiles downward and still be considered normal.14 Most children in this category find their true curve by the age of 3 years.6,14 When the percentile drop is great, it is helpful to compare the childs weight percentile to height and head circumference percentiles. These should be consistent with the position of height and head circumference percentiles of the patient.5 Another limitation of the third percentile as a criterion to define FTT is that infants can be failing to thrive with marked d eceleration of weight gain, but they remain undiagnosed and therefore, untreated until they have fallen below the arbitrary third percentile.6 These normal small children do not demonstrate the disproportionate failure to gain weight that children with FTT do.6 This approach attempts not only to prevent normal small children from being incorrectly labeled as failing to thrive, but also excludes children with pathologic proportionate short stature.14 Having excluded these easily distinguishable disorders from the differential diagnosis of FTT, simplifies the approach to evaluation of the child who has failed to thrive.6 A more encompassing definition of FTT includes any child whose weight has fallen more than two standard deviations from a previous growth curve.3,15,16 Normal shifts in growth curves in the first 2 years of life will result in less severe decline (i.e, less than 2 SD).13 Some authors have even limited the definition of FTT to only children less than 3 years old17,18 A precise age limitation is arbitrary. However, most children with FTT are under 3 years of age.6,8 EPIDEMIOLOGY In young children, FTT which does not reach the severe classical syndrome of marasmus is common in all societies.19 However, the true incidence of FTT is not known as many infants with FTT are not identified, even in developed countries.20-22 It is estimated to affect 5 10% of young children and approximately 3 5% of children admitted into teaching hospitals.3,5,23 Mitchell et al,24 using multiple criteria found that nearly 10% of under-fives attending primary health care centre in the United States showed FTT. About 5% of paediatric admissions in United Kingdom are for FTT.4 The prevalence is even higher in developing countries with wide-spread poverty and high rates of malnutrition and/or HIV infections.3,19 Children born to single teenage mothers and working mothers who work for long hours are at increased risk.22 The same is true of children in institutions such as orphanage homes and homes for the mentally retarded5,22 with an estimated incidence of 15% as a group.5 Under-feed ing is the single commonest cause of FTT and results from parental poverty and/or ignorance.19,22,24 Ninety five percent of cases of FTT are due to not enough food being offered or taken.25 The peak incidence of FTT occurs in children between the age of 9 24 months with no significant sex difference.22 Majority of children who fail to thrive are less than 18 months old.3 The syndrome of FTT is uncommon after the age of 5 years.3,22 AETIOLOGY Traditionally, causes of FTT have been classified as non-organic and organic. However, some authors have stated that this terminology is misleading.27 They based their opinion on the fact that all cases of FTT are produced by inadequate food or undernutrition and in that context, is organically determined. In addition, the distinction based on organic and non-organic causes is no longer favoured because many cases of FTT are of mixed aetiologies.3 Based on pathophysiology (the preferred classification), FTT may be classified into those due to: (i) Inadequate caloric intake; (ii) Inadequate absorption; (iii) Increased caloric requirement; and (iv) Defective utilization of calories. This classification leads to a logical organization of the many conditions that cause or contribute to FTT.10 Non organic (psychosocial) failure to thrive In non-organic failure to thrive (NFTT), there is no known medical condition causing the poor growth. It is due to poverty, psychosocial problems in the family, maternal deprivation, lack of knowledge and skill in infant nutrition among the care-givers5,11. Other risk factors include substance abuse by parents, single parenthood, general immaturity of one or both parents, economic stress and strain, temporary stresses such as family tragedies (accidents, illnesses, deaths) and marital disharmony.6,8,22 Weston et al,28 reported that 66% of mothers whose infants failed to thrive has a positive history of having been abused as children themselves, compared to 26% of controls from similar socioeconomic background. NFTT accounts for over 70% of cases of FTT.6 Of this number, approximately one-third is due to care-givers ignorance such as incorrect feeding technique, improper preparation of formula or misconception of the infants nutritional needs,29 all of which are easily corrected. A cl ose look at these risk factors for NFTT suggest that infants with growth failure may represent a flag for serious social and psychological problems in the family. For example, a depressed mother may not feed her infant adequately. The infant may, in turn, become withdrawn in response to mothers depression and feed less well.10 Extreme parental attention, either neglect or hypervigilance, can lead to FTT.10 Organic failure to thrive It occurs when there is a known underlying medical cause. Organic disorders causing FTT are most commonly infections (e.g HIV infection, tuberculosis, intestinal parasitosis), gastrointestinal (e.g., chronic diarrhoea, gastroesophageal reflux, pyloric stenosis) or neurologic (e.g., cerebral palsy, mental retardation) disorders.6,19,22 Others include genitourinary disorders (e.g., posterior urethral valve, renal tubular acidosis, chronic renal failure, UTI), congenital heart disease, and chromosomal anomalies.6,7 Together neurologic and gastrointestinal disorders account for 60 80% of all organic causes of under nutrition in developed countries.30 An important medical risk factor for under nutrition in childhood is premature birth.1 Among preterm infants, those who are small for gestational age are particularly vulnerable since prenatal factors have already exerted deleterious effect on somatic growth.1 In societies where lead poisoning is common, it is a recognized risk factor for p oor growth.5,31 Organic FTT virtually never presents with isolated growth failure, other signs and symptoms are generally evident with a detailed history and physical examination.32 Organic disorders accounts for less than 20% of cases of FTT.6 Mixed failure to thrive In mixed FTT, organic and non organic causes coexist. Those with organic disorders may also suffer from environmental deprivation. Likewise, those with severe undernutrition from non-organic FTT can develop organic medical problems. FTT with no specific aetiology Review of the literature on FTT indicate that in 12 32% of cases of children who have failed to thrive, no specific aetiology could be established.23,33-34 Causes of failure to thrive A. Prenatal cases: (i) Prematurity with its complication (ii) Toxic exposure in utero such as alcohol, smoking, medications, infections (eg rubella, CMV) (iii) Intrauterine growth restriction from any cause (iv) Chromosomal abnormalities (eg Down syndrome, Turner syndrome) (v) Dysmorphogenic syndromes. B. Postnatal causes based on pathophysiology: A. Inadequate caloric intake which may result from: i. Under feeding Incorrect preparation of formula (e.g. too dilute, too concentrated). Behaviour problems affecting eating (e.g., childs temperament). Unsuitable feeding habits (e.g., uncooperative child) Poverty leading to food shortages. Child abuse and neglect. Mechanical feeding difficulties e.g., congenital anomalies (cleft lip/palate), oromotor dysfunction. Prolonged dyspnoea of any cause B. Inadequate absorption which may be associated with: Malabsorption syndromes e.g. Celiac disease, cystic fibrosis, cows milk protein allergy, giardiasis, food sensitivity/intolerance Vitamins and mineral deficiencies e.g., zinc, vitamins A and C deficiencies. Hepatobiliary diseases e.g., biliary atresia. Necrotizing enterocolitis Short gut syndrome. C. Increased Caloric requirement due to Hyperthyroidism Chronic/recurrent infections e.g., UTI, respiratory tract infection, tuberculosis, HIV infection Chronic anaemias D. Defective Utilization of Calories Inborn errors of metabolism e.g., galactosaemia, aminoacidopathies, organic acidurias and storage diseases. Diabetes inspidus/mellitus Renal tubular acidosis Chronic hypoxaemia Clinical manifestations of FTT3,22 Commonly the parents/care-givers may complain that the child is not growing well or losing weight or not feeding well or not doing well or not like his other siblings/age mates. Usually FTT is discovered and diagnosed by the infants physician using the birthweight and health clinic anthropometric records of the child. The infant looks small for age. The child may exhibit loss of subcutaneous fat, reduced muscle mass, thin extremities, a narrow face, prominent ribs, and wasted buttocks, Evidence of neglected hygiene such as diaper rash, unwashed skin, overgrown and dirty fingernails or unwashed clothing. Other findings may include avoidance of eye contact, lack of facial expression, absence of cuddling response, hypotonia and assumption of infantile posture with clenched fists. There may be marked preoccupation with thumb sucking. EVALUATION A. Initial evaluation It has been proposed that only three initial investigations are required to develop an economical, treatment-centred approach to the child who presents with FTT and this include:35 (i) A thorough history including an itemized psychosocial review; (ii) Careful physical examination including determination of the auxological parameters; and (iii) Direct observation of the childs behaviour and of parent-child interactions. The Psychosocial Review: The psychosocial history should be as thorough and systematic as a classic physical examination Goldbloom35 suggested that the interviewers should ask themselves three questions about every family: (i) How do they look; (ii) What do they say; and (iii) What do they do? a. HISTORY (1) Nutritional history Nutritional history should include: Details of breast feeding to get an idea of number of feeds, time for each feeding, whether both breasts are given or one breast, whether the feeding is continued at night or not and how is the childs behaviour before, after and in between the feeds. It would give an idea of the adequacy or inadequacy of mothers milk. If the infant is on formula feeding: Is the formula prepared correctly? Dilute milk feed will be poor in calorie with excess water. Too concentrated milk feed may be unpalatable leading to refusal to drink. It is also essential to know the total quantity of the formula consumed. Is it given by bottle or cup and spoon? Also assess the feeling of the mother e.g., ask how do you feel when the baby does not feed well? Time of introduction of complementary feeds and any difficulty should be noted. Vitamin and mineral supplement; when started, type, amount, duration. Solid food; when started, types, how taken. Appetite; whether the appetite is temporarily or persistently impaired (if necessary calculate the caloric intake). For older children enquire about food likes and dislikes, allergies or idiosyncracies. Is the child fed forcibly? It is desirable to know the feeding routine from the time the child wakes up in the morning till he sleeps at night, so that one can get an idea of the total caloric intake and the calories supplied from protein, fat and carbohydrate as well as adequacy of vitamins and minerals intake. (2) Past and current medical history The history of prenatal care, maternal illness during pregnancy, identified fetal growth problems, prematurity and birth weight. Indicators of medical diseases such as vomiting, diarrhoea, fever, respiratory symptoms and fatigue should be noted. Past hospitalization, injuries, accidents to evaluate for child abuse and neglect. Stool pattern, frequency, consistency, presence of blood or mucus to exclude malabsorption syndromes, infection and allergy. (3) Family and social history Family and social history should include the number, ages and sex of siblings. Ascertain age of parents (Down syndrome and Klinerfelter syndrome in children of elderly mothers) and the childs place in the family (pyloric stenosis). Family history should include growth parameters of siblings. Are there other siblings with FTT (e.g., genetic causes of FTT), family members with short stature (e.g. familial short stature). Social history should determine occupation of parents, income of the family, identify those caring for the child. Child factors (e.g., temperament, development), parental factors (e.g., depression, domestic violence, social isolation, mental retardation, substance abuse) and environmental and societal factors (e.g., poverty, unemployment, illiteracy) all may contribute to growth failure.5 Historical evaluation of the child with FTT is summarized in Table 1. (b) PHYSICAL EXAMINATION The four main goals of physical examination include (i) identification of dysmorphic features suggestive of a genetic disorder impeding growth; (ii) detection of under lying disease that may impair growth; (iii) assessment for signs of possible child abuse; and (iv) assessment of the severity and possible effects of malnutrition.36,37 The basic growth parameters such as weight, height / length, head circumference and mid-upper-arm circumference must be measured carefully. Recumbent length is measured in children below 2 years of age because standing measurements can be as much as 2cm shorter.36,37 Other anthropometric data such as upper-segment-to-lower-segment ratio, sitting height and arm span should also be noted. The anthropometric index used for FTT should be weight-for-length or height. Mid-parental height (MPH) should be determined using the formula.40 For boys, the formula is: MPH = [FH + (MH 13)] 2 For girls, the formula is: MPH = [(FH 13) + MH] 2 In both equations, FH is fathers height in centimetres and MH is mothers height in centimetres. The target range is calculated as the MPH Â ± 8.5cm, representing the two standard deviation (2SD) confidence limits.14 Assessment of degree FTT The degree of FTT is usually measured by calculating each growth parameter (weight, height and weight/height ratio) as a percentage of the median value for age based on appropriate growth charts3 (See Table 3) Table 3: Assessment of degree of failure to thrive (FTT) Growth parameter Degree of Failure to Thrive Mild Moderate Severe Weight 75-90% 60 -74% Height 90 -95% 85 89% Weight/height ratio 81-90% 70 -80% Adapted from Baucher H.3 It should be noted that appropriate growth charts are often not available for children with specific medical problems, therefore serial measurements are especially important for these children.3 For premature infants, correction must be made for the extent of prematurity. Corrected age, rather than chronologic age, should be used in calculations of their growth percentiles until 1-2 years of corrected age.3 Table 2: Physical examination of infants and children with growth failure. Abnormality Diagnostic Consideration Vital signs Hypotension Hypertension Tachypnoea/Tachycardia Adrenal or thyroid insufficiency Renal diseases Increased metabolic demand Skin Pallor Poor hygiene Ecchymoses Candidiasis Eczema Erythema nodosum Anaema Neglect Abuse Immunodeficiency, HIV infection Allergic disease Ulcerative colitis, vasculitis HEENT Hair loss Chronic otitis media Cataracts Aphthous stomatitis Thyroid enlargement Stress Immunodeficiency, structural oro- facial defect Congenital rubella syndrome, galactosaemia Crohns disease Hypothyroidism Chest Wheezes Cystic fibrosis, asthma Cardiovascular Murmur Congenital heart disease(CHD) Abdomen Distension hyperactive Bowel sound Hepatosplenomegaly Malabsorption Liver disease, glycogen storage disease Genitourinary Diaper rashes Diarrhoea, neglect Rectum Empty ampulla Hirschsprungs disease Extremities Oedema Loss of muscle mass Clubbing Hypoalbuminaemia Chronic malnutrition Chronic lung disease, Cyanotic CHD Nervous system Abnormal deep tendon Reflexes Developmental delay Cranial nerve palsy Cerebral palsy Altered caloric intake or requirements Dysphagia Behaviour and temperament Uncooperative Difficult to feed. Adapted from Collins et al 41 Growth charts should be evaluated for pattern of FTT. If weight, height and head circumference are all less than what is expected for age, this may suggest an insult during intrauterine life or genetic/chromosomal factors.2 If weight and height are delayed with a normal head circumference, endocrinopathies or constitutional growth should be suspected.2 When only weight gain is delayed, this usually reflects recent energy (caloric) deprivation.2 Physical examination in infants and children with FTT is summarized in Table 2. Failure to thrive due to environmental deprivation Children with environmental deprivation primarily demonstrate signs of failure to gain weight: loss of fat, prominence of ribs and muscles wasting, especially in large muscle groups such as the gluteals.6 Developmental assessment It is important to determine the childs developmental status at the time of diagnosis because children with FTT have a higher incidence of developmental delays than the general population.36 With environmental deprivation, all milestones are usually delayed once the infant reaches 4 months of age.42 Areas dependent on environmental interactions such as language development and social adaptation are often disproportionately delayed. Specific behavioural evaluations (e.g., recording responses to approach and withdrawal), have been developed to help differentiate underlying environmental deprivation from organic disease.43 Assess the infants developmental status with a full Denver Developmental Standardized test.44 Parent-child interaction: Evaluate interaction of the parents and the child during the examination. In environmental deprivation, the parent often readily walks away from the examination table, appearing to easily abandon the child to the nurse or physician.6 There is little eye contact between child and parent and the infant is held distantly with little moulding to the parents body.6 Often the infant will not reach out for the parent and little affectionate touching is noted.6 There is little parental display of pleasure towards the infant.6 Observation of feeding is an integral part of the examination, but it is ideally done when the parents are least aware that they are being observed. Breast-fed infants should be weighed before and after several feedings over a 24-hour period since volume of milk consumed may vary with each meal. In environmental deprivation, the parents often miss the infants cues and may distract him during feeding; the infant may also turn away from food and appear distressed.6 Unnecessary force may be used during feeding. Developing a portrait of the child-parent relationship is a key to guiding intervention.11 LABORATORY EVALUATION The role of laboratory studies in the evaluation of FTT is to investigate for possible organic diagnoses suggested by the history and physical examination.33,34 If an organic aetiology is suggested, appropriate studies should be undertaken. If history and physical examination do not suggest an organic aetiology, extensive laboratory test is not indicated.6 However, on admission full blood count, ESR, urinalysis, urine culture, urea and electrolyte (including calcium and phosphorus) levels should be carried out. Screen for infections such as HIV infection, tuberculosis and intestinal parasitosis. Skeletal survey is indicated if physical abuse is strongly suspected. In addition to being unproductive, blind laboratory fishing expeditions should be avoided for the following reason:5,6 (i) they are expensive; (ii) they impair the childs ability to gain weight in a new environment both by frightening him/her with venepuncture, barium studies and other stressful procedures and the no oral f eeds associated with some investigations prevent him/her from getting enough calories; (iii) they can be misleading since a number of laboratory abnormalities are associated with psychosocial deprivation (e.g., increased serum transaminases , transient abnormalities of glucose tolerance, decreased growth hormone and iron deficiency);21 and (iv) they divert attention and resources from the more productive search for evidence of psychosocial deprivation. In one study, a total of 2,607 laboratory studies were performed, with an average of 14 tests per patient. With all tests considered, only 10(0.4%) served to establish a diagnosis and an additional 1% were able to support a diagnosis.34 Further Evaluation (1) Hospitalization: Although some authors state that most children with failure to thrive can be treated as outpatients,4,5,11,45 I think it is best to hospitalize the infant with FTT for 10 14 days. Hospitalization has both diagnostic and therapeutic benefits. Diagnostic benefits of admission may include observation for feeding, parental-child interaction, and consultation of sub-specialists. Therapeutic benefits include administration of intravenous fluids for dehydration, systemic antibiotic for infection, blood transfusion for anaemia and possibly, parenteral nutrition, all of which are often in-hospital procedures. In addition, if an organic aetiology is discovered for the FTT, specific therapy can be initiated during hospitalization. In psychosocial FTT, hospitalization provides opportunity to educate parents about appropriate foods and feeding styles for infants. Hospitalization is necessary when the safety of the child is a concern. In most situations in our set up, there i s no viable alternative to hospitalization. (2) Quantitative assessment of intake: A prospective 3-day diet record should be a standard part of the evaluation. This is useful in assessing under nutrition even when organic disease is present. A 24-hour food recall is also desirable. Having parents write down the types of food and amounts a child eats over a three-day is one way of quantifying caloric intake. In some instances, it can make parents aware of how much the child is or is not eating.11 Table 4: Summary of risk factors for the development of failure to thrive Infant characteristics Any chronic medical condition resulting in: Inadequate intake (e.g, swallowing dysfunction, central nervous system depression, or any condition resulting in anorexia) Increased metabolic rate (e.g, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, congenital heart disease, fevers) Maldigestion or malabsorption (e.g, AIDS, cystic fibrosis, short gut, inflammatory bowel disease, celiac disease). Infections (e.g., HIV, TB, Giardiasis) Premature birth (especially with intrauterine growth restriction) Developmental delay Congenital anomalies Intrauterine toxin exposure (e.g. alcohol) Plumbism and/or anaemia Family characteristics Poverty Unusual health and nutrition beliefs Social isolation Disordered feeding techniques Substance abuse or other psychopathology (include Muschausen syndrome by proxy) Violence or abuse Adapted from Kleinman RE.1 Table 1: Summary of historical evaluation of infants and children with growth failure Prenatal General obstetrical history Recurrent miscarriages Was the pregnancy planned? Use of medications, drugs, or cigarettes Labour, delivery, and neonatal events Neonatal asphyxia or Apgar scores Prematurity Small for gestational age Birth weight and length Congenital malformations or infections Maternal bonding at birth Length of hospitalization Breastfeeding support Feeding difficulties during neonatal period Medical history of child Regular physician Immunizations Development Medical or surgical illnesses Frequent infections Growth history Plot previous points Nutrition history Feeding behavior and environment Perceived sensitivities or allergies to foods Quantitative assessment of intake (3-day diet record, 24-hour food recall) Social history Age and occupation of parents Who feeds the child? Life stresses (loss of job, divorce, death in family) Availability of social and economic support (Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children; Aid for Families with Dependent Chi

Tennysons Poetry and Views Essay -- Alfred Tennyson Poet Poems Essays

Tennyson's Poetry and Views Alfred Lord Tennyson and his works have been an important part of canonical literature for over a century. He is as important as he is because his work is exceptional in many ways. One of these exceptional differences, in my opinion, is the conflicting view of women Tennyson portrays in his poetry, especially his poem "Locksley Hall." Tennyson's "Locksley Hall" is, in my opinion, a poem that would benefit greatly from an ideological discussion concerning Tennyson's views of women. This poem poses the questions: Are Tennyson's words describing a set of beliefs felt only by the narrator of the poem, or does Tennyson himself share these beliefs? Is the condescending, yet powerful view of women only the speaking character's view, or does Tennyson at least partly share that same condescending view? After all, Tennyson was a member of Victorian society. At the time Tennyson wrote "Locksley Hall in the 1800s," women's rights were just beginning to be questioned. Previous to this time of questioning, women were thought to be totally inferior to men: †¦it was argued that as a woman's brain was smaller in cubic content it was therefore inevitable that she was unable to reason or to generalize or to pursue a connected line of thought as well as a man could. It was the accepted belief that she was both mentally and physically inferior to man; that she was, in fact, a relative creature†¦ (Crow, 146) But at the same time, Victorian men were putting women on pedestals. Yet, this privilege of being put upon a pedestal was really more condescension than a privilege. Duncan Crow, author of The Victorian Woman writes, "They were not privileges at all, but a code of prison rules; and the women were not queens, ... ...all" as he did? Perhaps Tennyson never actually made known his opinion of women and the woman's place, but he did seem to think this jilted youth's rant was typical of his time. Tennyson was writing for a Victorian audience that could sympathize with this jilted youth. I believe for one such as Tennyson to even compose such a work he, at the very least, was very familiar with the conflicting Victorian view of women. This, to me, makes "Locksley Hall" somewhat of an extension of his own ideas and beliefs, concerning women, that had been thusly shaped and influenced by his own culture. Works Cited Buckler, William E., ed. The Major Victorian Poets: Tennyson, Browning, Arnold. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. 1973. Tennyson, Alfred Lord. "Locksley Hall." The Poetic and Dramatic Works of Alfred Lord Tennyson. Ed. W. J. Rolfe. NY: Houghton Mifflin Co. 1898.

Examine the Role of the Church in Spain’s Conquest and Colonization of Continental America

Question:Examine the role of the Church in Spain’s conquest and colonization of continental America. The role of the Roman Catholic Church in Spain’s conquest and colonization of continental America was a two-fold process whereby under the facade of conversion and control lay the primary goal of gaining wealth, enforcing laws and the inevitable extension of control while condoning the beginnings of European slavery in the Caribbean. [i] Alternately, behind the movement for converting Indians lay some important influences in Spain.The Spanish Crown established royal controls over the ecclesiastical benefices and over the immense wealth of the church. [ii] Two papal bulls were issued in the year of 1493 that established the Spanish position in the New World. They also established the role that the Church was going to play in the New World. The first bull, issued on May 3, 1493, was called the Inter Caetera. It declared that lands discovered by Spanish envoys, not under a Christian owner, could be claimed by Spain.The bull also gave the Spanish monarch power to send men to convert the natives to the Catholic faith and instruct them in Catholic morals. The second papal bull issued that year expanded on the meaning of the first. The bull fixed a boundary for Spanish and Portuguese spheres of influence in the New World. This boundary heavily favored Spain, showing an alliance between Spain and the Church. Under the Spanish Crown the Inquisition was resurrected in the form of the conquistadores to hunt down heretics.In repressing the last non-Christian state in the Iberian Peninsula, Granada, and in forcibly expelling Jews and the Moors, King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella sought to purify Spanish society in a spirit of Christian unity. The acts were militant expressions of religious statehood on the establishment of the American colonization in the latter part of the 1490s. [iii] The church which arrived in the Caribbean advocated what has been called â⠂¬Ëœwarrior Catholicism’[iv], which is the belief that military conquest and evangelization were compatible. v] Acting in conjunction with the conquistadores, the Roman Catholic Church played a vital role in the Spanish system of colonization and is argued to be one of the most outstanding revolutionary devices of the Spanish Government. [vi] By its discipline and methods it assumed, the Church was almost a military and political agency designed to push forward and defend the colonial frontiers, pacify the natives and open the way to European occupation. [vii] The subjugation of the native Indians and the extension of the territorial boundaries emphasized the role of the Church.The Church also served to maintain colonial borders against foreign encroachment. By its exclusion of heretical Protestants and by its strict censorship of books, the Church made foreign political and philosophical ideas difficult or dangerous to obtain and served as a defensive mechanism of the Spanis h Empire. [viii] It was largely through the Roman Catholic Church that Spain succeeded in transmitting its culture and political dominance in the colonization of continental America during the 16th century. [ix] The Church was not only an advance post of the Spanish Empire and a political device of colonialism.It had its own religious objectives and interests. The Spanish colonial empire was served exclusively by the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church which received active government support and encouragement in the form of grants of land to build churches, free passages for priest, free wine and oil for the monasteries. A hierarchy if archbishops, bishops, and lesser clergy were dispatched by the Crown to the New World. Priests were chiefly concerned with superintending the work of converting the natives, whom they thought of as primitive, to Christianity and â€Å"protecting† them from exploitation.The earliest groups were the friars, of whom the Dominicans were prominent. Later, the Franciscans and Jesuits became more active. The Roman Catholic Church reinforced religious superiority over the Indians through the Indians culture, religion and language. Associated with their attention to the spiritual needs of conversion, the priests endeavored to eliminate ‘heathen’ practices among those Indians that they baptized. [x] The non-Christian people of the Americas were not simply to be converted; they were to be civilized, taught, humanized, purified and reformed.The Indians to be converted were strangers speaking in many unfamiliar tongues. In most cases, when the Friars first encountered them, they had been only recently conquered and subjugated, and even if not actively hostile they were likely to retain covert antagonisms. In their experience all Spaniards were exploitative. The Indian religions were composites of ceremonies and attitudes of the most diverse sort, no single technique of conversion could be employed. Conversion required bo th the introduction of Catholic Christianity and the extirpation of existing native religions, and of the two tasks the latter was the more difficult one. xi] Modern anthropology demonstrates that the elimination of pagan traits was only partial. In Indian societies of the twentieth century, even in the areas of most active Christian labour, residual pagan forms survived. The mission programme resulted in the syncretism of the Indian religion and Roman Catholic Christianity. Indians might have responded enthusiastically to the new teaching, but they tended to interpret Christianity as a doctrine compatible with their own tolerant pagan religions, and they allowed Christianity and paganism to exist simultaneously as complementary faiths.A common Indian view held that one religious form was resorted to when another failed to bring a desired result. [xii] However, in a process of religious syncretism, as priest constructed churches out of the stones of destroyed temples, symbolizing an d emphasizing the substitution of one religion by the other,[xiii] religious saints like the Aztec’s Tonantzin and the Virgin Mary became intermingled, creating a new national symbol, the Virgin of Guadalupe. [xiv]In Mexico, Cortes’ forces destroyed Indian religious sites, cleaned them with lime and replaced images of Quetzalcoatl and other Indian gods with images of Christ and the Virgin Mary. [xv] Native temples were torn down, idols destroyed and burnt, sacrificial wells were filled-in, writings were destroyed and other material evidence, anything the Roman Catholic Church considered as paganism were destroyed. [xvi] The Church was also concerned with the material and physical welfare of the natives.Hospitals were particularly needed because of the epidemics which occasionally swept the land. A hospital not only provided treatment for the sick, but was frequently a kind of poor-house as well, where the aged and infirmed could be attended to, and where poor-relief co uld be dispensed. Virtually all the social services in the Spanish colonies were provided by the clergy. However, despite the advances in saving the Indians from exploitation, the work of the Church often caused distress and was sometimes harmful.In successful conversions, Indians supplied construction labour on the churches, hospitals, monasteries and schools without recompense, voluntarily, or at the command of their newly Christianized chiefs. The friars then proceeded to expand the Christianized area, by moving out into surrounding towns, where subordinate chapels were built. Cooperating Indians were brought into the conversion process to assist the friars. Indians who refused to accept Christianity were punished, sometimes by death.The labour of Christianization was further hindered by conflicts between friars and other branches of the society. The terms of the encomienda demanded that the masters should see to the Indians protection, with the duty of seeing that they were care d for and taught to become more civilized. Becoming more civilized really meant nothing more than giving signs that they accepted the Spanish as their masters, covering their bodies as European did, speaking Spanish and accepting the Christian faith.In return for Spanish protection the Indians were to give their service in the fields or mines of the encomenderos. The encomienda system was nothing more than a means of obtaining forced labour for the encomendero, Spanish conquistadors. No wages were paid for the work done and very often the Indians’ farms were ruined by herds of cattle or swine belonging to their encomendero. They rarely had time to grow their own food for the forced labour left them neither time nor strength.The Indians were not free to leave the encomienda and those who fled were hunted down by men on horseback with dogs. The death rate among the Indians shot up as a result of hunger, weakness and despair among people whose traditional village and family life was completely destroyed. The Church and the encomienda became rival institution, each in its own way seeking control over the native populations. This issue between them erupted openly in 1511, when the Dominican friar Antonio de Montesinos first condemned the colonists’ treatment of the Indian in Hispaniola.Thereafter, under the leadership of Bartolome de Las Casas, another Dominican friar and others, ecclesiastical criticism of encomienda became frequent and outspoken. The Spaniards saw the friars as officious nuisances whose object was to pry into the livelihood of encomienda Indians, criticize the encomenderos’ use of Indian labour and denounce encomienda in letters to the king. Although the rights and wrongs of the encomienda system were discussed by the Crown it was decided that this system was necessary if the colonies were to survive.There was no other way of replacing the labour that the Indians provided. It was agreed, though, that the system would be bette r organized and the rights of the Indians more properly protected. To this end the Thirty Two Laws of Burgos were published in 1512, whereby Spaniards were confirmed in their rights to coerce the Indians, but their obligations to convert them and treat them humanely were set out in great detail, even to what food, clothes and beds they were to be supplied with. Two inspectors were to be appointed in each town to ensure that the rules were kept.Those laws could have corrected the abuses, but the practical difficulties of putting them into full effect on the far side of the Atlantic and the Andes, and against powerful vested interests, were difficult to prevail over. [xvii] The crown added to the powers of the Church by giving it powers of censorship over all books entering the Empire. This was intended at first to keep out heretical Protestant works, but it was also used against political books. Education and the confessional enabled the Church and assisted the Inquisition in keeping a close watch on the movement of thought.The transatlantic movements of books were regulated in Seville. â€Å"Popular and fictional literature came under the purview of the secular authorities (in Spain), which placed a ban in 1531 on the export of romances of chivalry to the Indies as being likely to corrupt the minds of the Indians. †[xviii] To make these powers more effective, a branch of the Inquisition, a special church court, was established from Spain. Its official powers were to prosecute those who broke the laws such as blasphemy, bigamy, heresy, witchcraft, heterodoxy, and sins against God.The Inquisition punishment included penance, prison sentences, property confiscation and burning at the stake. Informers could remain anonymous and the crimes of so called heresy and witchcraft could have many interpretations. This tribunal was operating out of Lima, Mexico City and Cartagena by 1570. Protestant smugglers and raiders of all nationalities captured by the Spanish were brought before the Inquisition and charged as heretics. But most importantly for the government of the Empire, the Inquisition could be used against influential people who showed too great a tendency to criticize.In this way the Church played a part in keeping the colonies tied to Spain The Roman Catholic Church operated without competition in the circum-Caribbean colonial society during the sixteenth century, where it performed both religious and political functions. In religion, it taught and converted the native Indians to Christianity and catered to the religious needs of the Spanish community. Politically, it helped to extend the boundaries of the Spanish Empire by removing opposition to it: in the case of the Indians by its teachings; and in the case of Europeans, largely through the operation of the Inquisition.The Church did much good, but its efforts resulted in a number of drawbacks. For example the genuineness of the conversion of the Indians is doubtful. In generall y, in all the colonies, the Church catered to the spiritual needs and at the same time contributed to the preservation of the society in which they operated.

Civil Disobeiance essays

Civil Disobeiance essays Civil Disobedience Civil disobedience is the refusal to obey civil laws. This refusal is in the form of nonviolence. People who use civil disobedience are usually protesting a law that they think is unjust. Usually, they are also willing to accept any penalty Henry David Thoreau was born in 1817 at Concord, Massachusetts. He was Educated at Harvard University. During his early years Henry spent most of his time walking in the wilderness or talking with his mentor and friend Ralph In July of 1846, Henry needed his shoes which had holes in them repaired. After the cobbler repaired the shoes Henry exited the store and was approached by Sam Staples, the town constable. Sam asked Henry to pay his poll tax. Henry intentionally did not pay his taxes because the revenues were used to help finance the United States war with Mexico and supported the enforcement of slavery Since Henry refused to pay, Sam Staples was required to take Henry to jail. Henry spent the night in jail. During that evening someone heard of Henry`s problem and paid his taxes. Most people think that Henry`s Aunt paid the taxes but no one knows for sure. When Henry found out that his tax had been paid, he was outraged . Henry argued that since he was not the one who paid the taxes he still deserved to be The night he spent in jail prompted Henry to write one of the most Famous essays in American history, On the duty of Civil Disobedience. ...

Marriage Ancient China Essays

Marriage Ancient China Essays Marriage Ancient China Paper Marriage Ancient China Paper In recent years, marriage has become not only a relationship with one man and one woman, but in America same sex couples and men who have multiples wives are able to wed as well. Indian and Japanese men and women are able to wed through an arrangement of both families. In ancient China, Chinese couples also had arranged marriages, but in modern times the tradition has faded. Although the way people get married is different a woman’s role in the marriage is similar culture to culture throughout ancient India, China, and Japan, divorce is a common practice in American now, but thousands of years ago there were still laws and criticisms among couples in Indian and Chinese Civilizations preventing such action, and life after a death of a husband was nonexistent to women in Chinese Civilizations. A woman’s role in marriage does not only include: cooking, cleaning, bearing children, but also respecting their husbands. Respect can mean many different things and can be show in many different ways. The Laws of Manu, Manu being a sole survivor of a flood, are not legal, but more of an Indian culture for dummies type of book. People read and learn from the law instead of abiding by them. Not only does the Law of Manu say, â€Å"Let the husband employ his wife†¦in keeping everything clean†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (38), but also â€Å"if a wife obeys her husband, she will for that reason alone be exalted in heaven. †(38) Indian women must still do the house work, but also they must obey their husbands and in return heaven awaits them. If obedience is not accomplished women according to Law of Manu will be â€Å"tormented by diseases as punishment for her sin† (38). A woman, Ban Zhao, wrote an advice manual for Chinese women called Lessons for Women. Zhao writes about husbands and wives and describes their relationship together like Yin and Yang. The couple is opposite forces bound together and creates each other. Not only does a woman have to serve her husband, but a husband must control his wife as well. If one side of the puzzle doesn’t work then the Lessons for Women states, â€Å"the natural order of things are neglected and destroyed. † (85) Because both sides have to work in the marriage it is based on both people working together. This Chinese philosophy has been used until the twenty century. The Japanese also had a female writer, Murasaki Shikibu, who wrote the narrative book The Tale of Genji. It describes how to pick a wife and the role of women in marriage. Shikibu describes the relationship between an and woman, husband and wife, â€Å"The bond between husband and wife is a strong one. † (167) â€Å"When there are crises, incidents, a woman should try to over look them for better or for worse, and make the bond into something durable. †(167) Shikibu explains forgiving and forgetting the simple actions women should perform as a part of their daily roles in a marriage. Not all marriages work out one person is unfaithful or simply the two just don ’t get along. In America it is simple legal procedure, but in ancient Indian Society couples tried to abide by the Laws of Manu. The law states the man must be with his wife for a year, but after that year the man has the ability to take away what she has and live apart from her. In Indian society at the time this type of behavior would be acceptable. In modern China women are able to divorce their husbands and its becoming more common. The Chinese culture has a poem written about a divorced woman who returns back home. The poem from the Book of Song states, â€Å"It was not I who was at fault†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (43) The woman is very angry and hurt; she is filled with emotions. Her family disowner her and she places blame on the man who broke her heart. The Chinese culture accepts the idea of divorce less than the Indian cultures. The death of loved one is hard enough, but the death of a spouse is much more intense. In Chinese cultures the woman would commit suicide when her husband died. The women committed the act of suicide in order to demonstrate personal virtue. The works are presented in Widows Loyal unto Death, show the main way of killing one self after a husband’s death was by hanging. Most of the women in the stories were young girls and the time of marriage was usually very short. The girl, Sun Yinxiao was seventeen and her marriage lasted less than a year. She, â€Å"†¦bound a wide girdle round the beam to hang herself. †(180) Huang Yujue was only fifteen and was only engaged to Chen Rujing when she took a knife to the throat. The amount of bravery shown by the Chinese women to kill themselves to have personal virtue is still questionable to the Chinese people. Marriage, divorce and death is shown and presented in different way in different cultures. Indian civilizations have the Laws of Manu to explain what roles women should perform and how divorces should be performed. Chinese cultures who have the Yin and Yang as a part of marriages not specific duties. Because of the bond, the ancient Chinese wives committed suicide after the death of their husbands. The Japanese are simple in what a woman’s role should be, simply loving and forgiving her husband after mistakes. Although different cultures have different ideas of marriage most husbands and wives still work hard to make it strong, healthy, and happy.

Flims Harry Potter and the Avengers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Flims Harry Potter and the Avengers - Essay Example ques in order to enhance the effectiveness of the films, film producers employ numerous emblements including lighting, camera movement, transitions and editing features among many others in order to portray each film as both unique and original (Nelmes, 2003). The discussion below thus analyses the difference in the structures of two films; Harry Potter and The Avengers by analyzing the difference in both the storylines and the unique film production techniques the developers of each film employs. This way, the discussion portrays the similarities and difference in the two films. As stated earlier, films have definite story lines often in a form of narration. This refers to the action and series of events that occur in the film. Just with any other type of literary construction, the film must have a definite structure and flow chronologically in a manner that provides a logical flow of ideas and stories. Film narratives thus have characters who must exhibit appropriate characteristics in order to complement the original ideas of the stories. Among the major and equally distinctive features of the two films is their genres, Harry Potter is a series of eight fantasy films and are film adaptation of J. K. Rowling’s novels of the same tittle while The Avengers is a series of comical films. Fantasy films just as the name suggests are films based on imaginary stories (Serkis, 2003). The author of the novel therefore develops imaginary stories a feature that requires effective construction of conflicts in a logical manner. Logical conflicts help validate the storyline thus enhancing the satisfaction of the audience. The avengers on the other hand is a comical film, this implies that the films main objective is to cause humor. The storyline of the two films thus differ since each strives to achieve different objectives. While The Avengers strives to humor, Harry Potter strives to convenience the audience of the logical nature of the hyperbolic narrative. The Harry

Turner Review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Turner Review - Essay Example According to the review, the major factors that have drove the world in the current financial crisis include among others the increasing financial innovation, growth in the market size, as well as microeconomic imbalances thus, causing overall systemic risk increase. In light of the foregoing crisis there was a great need to revaluate the existing regulatory regime, for instance the assumption that markets function in an efficient and rational way. To this end, Turner proposes a regulatory policy change in his review to a regulation approach that is more systematic (Turner 2009). In designing capital adequacy set of laws, the review postulate a couple of variant approaches which include: forming rules that are geared towards influencing the activities undertaken by different banks through sinking excessive risk taking incentives for the good of the economy at large (FSA 2009). Alternatively, the rules can be formed to shield the creditors in case of failure by a single bank. Turner in his review postulate that in order to direct more attention on Tier 1 capital and Core Tier 1, it would be prudent to boost the value of capital held by banks. The review further proposes that the current optimum level of capital should be substituted with a novel formation. The review however, acknowledges that the increase in the capital requirement should wait until the economy is more stable (Cooper 2009).